Download Torrent for Photovoltaics: Design and Installation Manual - The Ultimate Resource for Solar Power Systems
Photovoltaics: Design and Installation Manual downloads torrent
Photovoltaics is the science and technology of converting sunlight into electricity using solar cells. It is one of the most promising renewable energy sources that can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions, increase energy security and provide access to electricity for millions of people around the world. However, designing, installing and maintaining photovoltaic (PV) systems requires knowledge and training, and there have been few easily accessible, comprehensive guides to the subject.
Photovoltaics: Design and Installation Manual downloads torrent
One of the best books on photovoltaics is Photovoltaics: Design and Installation Manual by Solar Energy International (SEI), a world-class solar energy training and education provider. This book covers everything you need to know about PV systems, from the basics of solar electricity to the details of PV system components, sizing, installation and maintenance. It also includes detailed appendices on PV system troubleshooting and solar insolation data for over 300 sites around the world. The book is used worldwide as the textbook in SEI's PV Design & Installation workshops, and it is suitable for anyone who wants to learn the skills of tapping the sun's energy.
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The basics of solar electricity
Solar electricity is electricity generated from sunlight using solar cells. Solar cells are devices that convert light into electric current using the photovoltaic effect. The photovoltaic effect is a phenomenon where certain materials produce electric voltage when exposed to light.
How solar cells work
The most common type of solar cells are made of silicon, a semiconductor material that can conduct electricity under certain conditions. Silicon atoms have four electrons in their outermost shell, which can form bonds with four neighboring atoms to create a stable crystal structure. However, when silicon is exposed to light, some of its electrons gain enough energy to break free from their bonds and move around within the crystal. This creates two types of charge carriers: negatively charged electrons and positively charged holes.
To make use of these charge carriers, solar cells are composed of two layers of silicon with different electrical properties: n-type and p-type. N-type silicon has impurities that add extra electrons to its crystal structure, making it more negative than the pure silicon. P-type silicon has impurities that add extra holes to its crystal structure, making it more positive than the pure silicon. When n-type and p-type silicon are joined together, they form a p-n junction that allows current to flow in one direction only.
Types of solar cells and modules
There are different types of solar cells and modules based on the materials, efficiency, cost and applications. Some of the most common types are:
Monocrystalline silicon solar cells: These are made of single-crystal silicon wafers that have high purity and uniformity. They have a dark blue or black color and a high efficiency of about 15-20%. They are also more expensive and require more energy to produce than other types.
Polycrystalline silicon solar cells: These are made of multiple-crystal silicon wafers that have lower purity and uniformity. They have a light blue or gray color and a lower efficiency of about 10-15%. They are cheaper and require less energy to produce than monocrystalline silicon solar cells.
Thin-film solar cells: These are made of thin layers of semiconductor materials such as amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, copper indium gallium selenide, etc. that are deposited on a substrate such as glass, metal or plastic. They have a variety of colors and shapes and a low to medium efficiency of about 5-15%. They are flexible, lightweight and cheaper than crystalline silicon solar cells, but they also degrade faster and have lower durability.
Multi-junction solar cells: These are made of multiple layers of different semiconductor materials that can capture different wavelengths of light and increase the overall efficiency. They have a very high efficiency of about 30-40%, but they are also very expensive and complex to produce. They are mainly used for space applications such as satellites and spacecraft.
Solar cells are usually connected together in series or parallel to form solar modules or panels that can provide higher voltage or current output. Solar modules can also be connected together to form solar arrays that can generate large amounts of electricity for various applications.
Advantages and disadvantages of solar electricity
Solar electricity has many advantages and disadvantages compared to other sources of energy. Some of the advantages are:
It is renewable and sustainable, meaning it will not run out as long as the sun shines.
It is clean and environmentally friendly, meaning it does not produce greenhouse gases or other pollutants that contribute to global warming or air pollution.
It is free and abundant, meaning it does not depend on the availability or price of fossil fuels or other resources.
It is modular and scalable, meaning it can be installed in different sizes and locations to meet different needs and demands.
It is silent and low-maintenance, meaning it does not produce noise or require frequent repairs or replacements.
Some of the disadvantages are:
It is intermittent and variable, meaning it depends on the weather conditions and the time of day or year.
It is expensive and inefficient, meaning it requires high initial investment and has low conversion efficiency compared to other sources of energy.
It is land-intensive and aesthetically intrusive, meaning it requires large areas of land and may affect the natural landscape or wildlife habitats.
It is subject to technical challenges and limitations, meaning it faces issues such as storage, transmission, integration, reliability, etc.
PV applications and system components
PV systems can be used for various applications such as lighting, heating, cooling, pumping, communication, entertainment, etc. Depending on the availability and connection of the electric grid, PV systems can be classified into two main types: stand-alone and grid-connected.
Stand-alone and grid-connected systems
A stand-alone PV system is a system that operates independently from the electric grid. It usually consists of a PV array that generates electricity from sunlight, a battery bank that stores excess electricity for later use, a charge controller that regulates the charging and discharging of the battery bank, an inverter that converts direct current (DC) electricity from the PV array or battery bank into alternating current (AC) electricity for AC appliances, and a load that consumes electricity. A stand-alone PV system can also include a backup generator or another renewable energy source such as wind or hydro to provide additional power when the PV output is insufficient.
A stand-alone PV system is suitable for remote areas where the electric grid is unavailable or unreliable, or where the cost of grid connection is prohibitive. It can provide electricity for basic needs such as lighting, refrigeration, water pumping, etc. However, a stand-alone PV system also has some drawbacks such as high cost, low efficiency, limited capacity, and complex design and maintenance.
A grid-connected PV system is a system that operates in parallel with the electric grid. It usually consists of a PV array that generates electricity from sunlight, an inverter that converts DC electricity from the PV array into AC electricity that matches the grid voltage and frequency, and a grid interface that connects the PV system to the grid and allows bidirectional power flow. A grid-connected PV system can also include a battery bank or another energy storage device to store excess electricity for later use or to provide backup power during grid outages.
A grid-connected PV system is suitable for urban areas where the electric grid is available and reliable, or where the cost of grid connection is affordable. It can provide electricity for various needs such as residential, commercial, industrial, etc. It can also reduce the electricity bill by selling excess electricity to the grid or by offsetting the peak demand. However, a grid-connected PV system also has some challenges such as grid compatibility, safety, regulation, etc.
Batteries, controllers and inverters
Batteries, controllers and inverters are essential components of most PV systems. They perform different functions and have different types and specifications.
Batteries
Batteries are devices that store electrical energy in chemical form and release it when needed. They are used in stand-alone PV systems and some grid-connected PV systems to store excess electricity from the PV array or from the grid for later use or for backup power. Batteries can also provide voltage stabilization and load leveling for the PV system.
There are different types of batteries based on their chemistry, construction, capacity, voltage, etc. Some of the most common types of batteries used in PV systems are:
Lead-acid batteries: These are batteries that use lead and sulfuric acid as the electrodes and electrolyte. They are cheap, widely available, and easy to recycle. However, they are heavy, bulky, corrosive, toxic, and have a short lifespan and low efficiency.
Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries: These are batteries that use nickel oxide and cadmium as the electrodes and potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte. They are durable, reliable, and resistant to high temperatures and deep discharges. However, they are expensive, scarce, and environmentally hazardous.
Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries: These are batteries that use nickel oxide and a metal alloy as the electrodes and potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte. They are similar to NiCd batteries but have higher capacity, lower toxicity, and longer lifespan. However, they are still expensive, scarce, and prone to self-discharge.
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries: These are batteries that use lithium and various compounds as the electrodes and organic solvents as the electrolyte. They are lightweight, compact, efficient the amount of solar radiation and power output that the PV modules receive. The optimal orientation for PV modules depends on the location and time of the year.
The optimal direction for PV modules is to face true south in the northern hemisphere and true north in the southern hemisphere. This will ensure that the PV modules receive the most direct sunlight throughout the year. However, depending on the application and load profile of the PV system, it may be beneficial to deviate slightly from the optimal direction. For example, if the PV system is used for peak shaving or self-consumption, it may be better to face slightly west or east to capture more sunlight in the morning or afternoon when the electricity demand is higher.
The optimal angle for PV modules is to match the latitude of the location. This will ensure that the PV modules receive the most solar radiation throughout the year. However, depending on the season and climate of the location, it may be advantageous to adjust the angle slightly higher or lower. For example, if the location has a high latitude and a cold climate, it may be better to increase the angle in winter to capture more sunlight when the sun is low in the sky and to shed snow more easily. Conversely, if the location has a low latitude and a hot climate, it may be better to decrease the angle in summer to capture more sunlight when the sun is high in the sky and to reduce overheating.
Stand-alone and PV/generator hybrid system sizing
Stand-alone and PV/generator hybrid system sizing is the process of determining the optimal size and configuration of each component of a stand-alone or a PV/generator hybrid system based on the load requirements, solar resource availability, system performance, and cost-effectiveness. Stand-alone and PV/generator hybrid system sizing involves estimating or calculating the following parameters:
Load analysis and estimation: The process of identifying and quantifying the electrical load of a stand-alone or a PV/generator hybrid system based on its type, quantity, power rating, operating hours, duty cycle, etc.
PV array sizing: The process of determining the optimal number and arrangement of PV modules for a stand-alone or a PV/generator hybrid system based on its load requirements, solar resource availability, system performance, etc.
Battery sizing: The process of determining the optimal capacity and configuration of batteries for a stand-alone or a PV/generator hybrid system based on its load requirements, autonomy, depth of discharge, etc.
Controller and inverter sizing: The process of determining the optimal rating and type of controllers and inverters for a stand-alone or a PV/generator hybrid system based on its PV array size, battery size, load characteristics, etc.
Generator sizing: The process of determining the optimal rating and type of generators for a PV/generator hybrid system based on its load requirements, backup power needs, fuel availability, etc.
Load analysis and estimation
The first step in stand-alone and PV/generator hybrid system sizing is to analyze and estimate the electrical load of the system. The electrical load is the amount of electricity that is consumed by the appliances or devices connected to the system. The electrical load determines the size and configuration of the PV array, battery bank, controller, inverter, and generator for the system.
To analyze and estimate the electrical load of a stand-alone or a PV/generator hybrid system, the following steps are required:
Identify the type, quantity, power rating, operating hours, and duty cycle of each appliance or device that will be connected to the system.
Calculate the daily energy consumption (Wh/day) of each appliance or device by multiplying its power rating (W) by its operating hours (h/day).
Calculate the total daily energy consumption (Wh/day) of the system by adding up the daily energy consumption of all appliances or devices.
Calculate the peak power demand (W) of the system by adding up the power rating of all appliances or devices that will operate simultaneously at any given time.
Apply a safety factor of 1.2 to 1.5 to account for losses and inefficiencies in the system components and wiring.
For example, suppose a stand-alone PV system is required to power the following appliances or devices:
Appliance/Device Quantity Power Rating (W) Operating Hours (h/day) Duty Cycle (%) --- --- --- --- --- LED light bulb 4 10 4 100 Ceiling fan 2 50 8 100 Laptop computer 1 60 4 100 Cell phone charger 2 5 2 100 Radio 1 10 6 100 Refrigerator 1 120 24 50 The daily energy consumption (Wh/day) of each appliance or device can be calculated as follows:
Appliance/Device Daily Energy Consumption (Wh/day) --- --- LED light bulb 10 x 4 x 4 = 160 Ceiling fan 50 x 8 x 2 = 800 Laptop computer 60 x 4 x 1 = 240 Cell phone charger 5 x 2 x 2 = 20 Radio 10 x 6 x 1 = 60 Refrigerator 120 x 24 x 0.5 = 1440 The total daily energy consumption (Wh/day) of the system can be calculated as follows:
160 + 800 + 240 + 20 + 60 +1440 = 2720 Wh/day
The peak power demand (W) of the system can be calculated as follows:
10 +50 +60 +5 +10 +120 = 255 W
Applying a safety factor of 1.5, the electrical load of the system can be estimated as follows:
Daily energy consumption = 2720 x1.5 =4080 Wh/day
Peak power demand = 255 x1.5 =382.5 W 71b2f0854b